Giant Wood Spider spinning golden web in the coffee forest of the Poomaale Estate, Coorg.

Spider – a word that fascinates some but scares many. 

We all have that one (or more) friend(s) who is terrified of these eight-legged, web-spinning crawlers. And guess what? Arachnophobia, the fear of spiders, is among the top most common phobias worldwide! We have all been exposed to the ‘itsy bitsy spider’ very early on in our lives. We even get a thrill watching the adventures of ‘Spiderman’ even today. So why does the fear persist?

Researchers believe that the instinctive fear of spiders (and some other creatures such as snakes) is an evolutionary phenomenon, probably because of their venomous nature. Just like other creatures on the planet have instincts to protect themselves, humans too have evolved in a similar way – but it is a bit stronger in some cases than others. The venom of almost all spiders is harmless to humans barring a few of them (including the black widow and the brown recluse found in the USA). Knowing and understanding the roles these misunderstood creatures play in improving our lives can perhaps phase out the fear.

Into the Spiderverse!

Spiders belong to the class Arachnida which also include scorpions, mites and ticks. About 45,000 species of spiders are spread worldwide. Their sizes are vastly varying too – from merely 0.01 inches (Samoan moss spider) to a foot (Goliath birdeater). Being highly adaptable, they even make themselves at home in human habitats.

Being the most populous land predators, they are an ecologically important predator species. When it comes to the variety of prey, they have no limits. They aren’t picky and hunt without restrictions. Some predator species, like the Millipede Assassins, specialise in preying on particular creatures. But spiders are generalist predators and enjoy diversity. Barring a few tropical creatures, they eat more insects than any other creatures! Their intricately woven webs can trap almost any insect, propagating the food chain and ultimately restoring the balance of the ecosystem.

How Do Spiders Benefit Gardens and Farms?

Having spiders in your green spaces is nothing short of a blessing! Their presence in your can keep the insect population largely in check. Unlike some insects, they do not fancy plants. They are carnivorous and mostly eat insects and pests, that too a large variety of them! This way they become natural pest control agents for your farms, avoiding the effort of using chemical pesticides and reducing the harm incurred to the environment. 

But what do the plants do for the spiders in return?

It’s simple. They let spiders make homes in/around themselves – where they can take shelter, hide from threats and get support for spinning webs to trap the prey. This mutualistic relationship between spiders and plants continues to save crops from getting destroyed and allows the arachnids to thrive.

What Kinds of Plants Attract Spiders?

Spiders may not be picky about their prey, but they sure are picky about the plants they wish to be hosted by!

The smaller spiders prefer plants with dense foliage that allows them to hide with ease. They can be extremely good at hiding, you may not even realise their presence until they’re disturbed. Environmental factors like extreme dryness or rainfalls can harm them. Plant environments with enough moisture and leaves/ leaf litter or fallen twigs can help them protect themselves from the forces of nature. Besides dense foliage, spiders are attracted to tall plants like sunflowers, hollyhocks, foxgloves, etc, as they allow spiders to weave larger and more complex webs to trap insects. Sunflowers, in particular, are known to attract spiders to an extent that some spiders (like the crab spider) have also evolved to camouflage with the petals of the flower.

House plants have become immensely common over the last few years. Almost every house nowadays has indoor plants, but don’t be surprised (or scared) if you find spiders crawling around them. Houses often attract a variety of insects. Naturally, house plants become ideal for spiders to build nests and live. You need not even worry about overcrowding too, as spiders are territorial and like to have their personal space. However, if you wish to restrict spiders to outdoor green spaces, there are a few things you can do. First, you can plant mint, citrus or basil plants as their scents are known to repel spiders. Secondly, you can keep moving the plants a little from time to time – this makes it difficult for spiders to settle and spin webs. Make sure to not change the environment of the plants though! Third, keep the plants and surroundings clutter free and clean – this gives them less opportunity to hide.

How Can You Attract Spiders to Your Ecosystem?

Usually, you do not have to do anything to attract spiders to your gardens/farms. They are proactive in finding opportunities to hunt and hide. But, for any reason, if spiders aren’t entering your ecosystem and you want them to take charge of pest control, you can do that with minimal effort! Loose mulch can become a good network for spiders to enter and commute as it provides shelter and refuge. In case of tall plants, you can let the weeds grow around them to a certain height and trim the rest. Weeds, in a controlled quantity, can be good for your farm ecosystem. The same applies to home gardens, Not everything needs to be prim and proper. Choosing the elements that need trimming/retaining is key to bring spiders into your ecosystem and let nature do its work!

Lime butterfly gets its name from host plants which are usually citrus species (such as lime). Shot at the Poomaale Estate, Coorg. 

Several organisms have built a close relationship with each other over millions of years of evolution. Animals depend on each other for food, creatures camouflage with their environment to ward off threats, flowers and leaves indicate the changing season (and the environment’s health)..and the list goes on! 

Among these many everyday interactions between the elements of nature, one of the most common and eye-pleasing ones is that of butterflies and flowering plants. We have all made colourful drawings of it during childhood and tried to capture the beautiful fluttering moments as we grew up. But in this charming frame, there is an unseen give-and-take of ecological favours – those that are responsible for the very existence and continuity of the subjects of the frame.

Hold on though, as we have another member in the frame. The humble moth, generally perceived to be not as attractive as the butterfly, plays its role exceptionally well in this ecosystem of codependence.

Butterflies & Moths – How Similar or Different Are They?

Both butterflies and moths belong to the order Lepidoptera due to the presence of minuscule scales on their wings. Even though it is the butterflies that are more popular among humans, the moths seem to be more popular in the rest of the natural world. Their population is much higher than that of butterflies. Among the species of the Lepidoptera order, moths make up about 90% of them and butterflies merely 10%. Another major similarity between the two is their metamorphosis – the complete change of form from eggs to caterpillars, to cocoon/chrysalis and finally the winged adult. One can easily mistake a moth caterpillar for a butterfly caterpillar and vice versa.

Despite being fundamentally similar – both in terms of looks and lifecycles, they do possess many differences which have led to distinct categorisation. 

The most visible one is their wings. Butterflies fold their wings behind their body while sitting, while moths spread their wings flat and wide. The presence of ‘frenulums’ in moths (wing-coupling element in the body) allows them to display their wings as a unified canvas. Another differentiating feature is the shape of the antennae – saw-shaped in moths and hammer-shaped in butterflies. The metamorphosis is largely the same, except for the cocoons. Moth cocoons are silky soft (often exploited – like the Bombyx mori – to produce silk) whereas butterfly cocoons are hard (called chrysalis and not cocoons).

Activity time is also a major distinction. Butterflies are generally active during the day and moths are active at night. Exceptions exist in all rules and the case of butterflies and moths is no different. There are moths that look surprisingly like butterflies (like Castnioidea from Indonesia and Australia) and there are butterflies that are active during dawn and dusk. It only goes to indicate the extent of complexities that exist in evolutionary beings.

How Do Host Plants Benefit Butterflies & Moths?

The nectar of flowers, and sometimes the juice of rotting fruits, is the main source of food for butterflies. While many moths do depend on nectar greatly, their taste has evolved to be a bit more diverse. Some moths feed on plant leaves, rotting wood/fruits and even on fabric (like the common clothes moths).

Besides food, plants provide shelter to the eggs, caterpillars and cocoons/chrysalis of butterflies and moths. Once the eggs hatch, the caterpillars munch on the plants for nourishment and shelter them once again as they transform into cocoons. Once the butterflies and moths emerge from their self-crafted shells, the cycle repeats and continues. This way plants not just provide them with food, but support the entire life cycle of these fluttering species. 

How Do Butterflies & Moths Return the Favour?

Pollination – the process through which flowering/fruiting plants reproduce and evolve – is steered steeply by butterflies and moths (including other insects like bees and flies). Though plants pollinate through wind too, pollination by insects is more reliable and precise. Pollination by wind is random and can be limited to a region, but insect pollination is purposeful and wide-ranging improving biodiversity and helping the species evolve.

What Kinds of Plants Host Butterflies & Moths?

Bright, colourful and strong-scented flowers attract butterflies and moths. The leaves that caterpillars feed on are also a deciding factor. For example, the lo moth favours cherries, willows and raspberries. Caterpillar-friendly plants, both in terms of food and shelter are preferred. Leaf litter provides additional shelter to them. Overly clear grounds may not bring butterflies or moths to your gardens and farms. 

The mutualistic relationship between plants and butterflies has evolved to an extent that certain species cannot survive without their butterfly/moth counterparts (like the Yucca plant and yucca moth; monarch butterflies and milkweeds). The shapes of some flowers are evolved in a way that allows only specific butterflies to access the nectar and help them pollinate. This exclusive mutualism is an indicator of the closeness plants show towards butterflies and moths. While it applies to a select few species, growing native plants is a thumb rule when attracting butterflies or moths. Keeping the environment free of chemical fertilizers is also important as soil health greatly affects the nectar quality, which results in repelling butterflies and moths.

Moths Like to Stand Out

Diverse is what moths look for – diversity of food, habitats, activity and their very being. Not all species of moths help as pollinators, but they do have a mutualistic relationship with plants and sometimes become a source of food for birds. They do not exclusively lay eggs on flowering plants. Grasses, shrubs and vines are equally welcoming to them. Many moth caterpillars feed on weeds as well! Having the right variety of vegetation in your gardens and farms makes a comfortable habitat for both butterflies and moths.

The mantra to attract butterflies and moths is by not trying too hard! You can get some weeds to grow (but not take over the garden), plant diverse plants (preferably those that bloom in different seasons) and not overclean! Let some leaves and debris fall as they provide a safe ground for moths and butterflies to hide from predators. Using chemical pesticides can repel them. So you can introduce nature pest control plants like Citronella and Calotropis can help you manage your gardens and farms without harming the environment. Applying some eco-logic and making small adjustments to your processes can give you results beyond your imagination. A little learning (and unlearning) and understanding the way of nature are all we need to live in harmony with its wonderful creatures, enjoying the hidden advantages they bring along.

Common tree frog perched on a branch of a tree at the Poomaale Estate, Coorg.

Among the countless creatures that exist in the world, our introduction to frogs happened fairly early in life. Fairytales, folk stories, rhymes, cinema..don’t we all just love this amusing, quirky being? We often get delighted when we see a frog hop, hear it croak or simply watch it sit on a broad leaf basking in the sun. But if you observe, every action of the frog is an indicator.

Important Indicator Species

Frogs are the most popular amphibians on earth. They do not have tails or noses, but their striking, protruding eyes are enough to grab anyone’s attention. The males are typically smaller in size than the females. While they can live almost anywhere in the world, they particularly enjoy tropical rainforests and wetlands due to the abundance of water. 

Some creatures are known for their predatory behaviour (such as spiders) and some are known to fall prey very often (such as ants). Frogs show both behaviours. They feed on smaller insects, worms and rodents, and also fall prey to bigger reptiles, birds and animals, thus becoming an important link in the food chain. However, the presence of frogs can help us understand things beyond the food chain. They indicate things. Their presence tells us about the health of our environment and water bodies. So when you see a frog next time, there’s one more thing to be delighted about!

Being amphibians, frogs have the best of both worlds. This also means that the threats to their survival are twice as much. And to ward off threats and lead a peaceful life, they seek help from certain plants which ultimately make up the frog’s ecosystem.

Green and Leafy Elements of a Frog’s Ecosystem

All creatures live along with other creatures in an environment. They constantly interact with each other for various reasons. For example, butterflies and flowering plants have a give-and-take of services – flowers help butterflies lay eggs and butterflies help flowers pollinate. They benefit mutually. But these relationships always need not be mutualistic. And frogs’ relationship with plants is a great example of it.

The relationships between frogs and plants are often one-sided. This kind of relationship is called Commensalism. Being ectothermic in nature, they cannot produce their own body heat. So they need to often move from shaded and sun-exposed areas to regulate body temperature. Vegetation with a good proportion of shade and sun is perfect for frogs to live in. In addition, being amphibians, they live always live on the edge – the edge of land and water, and the edge of life and death. Here, healthy vegetation on shorelines can help them protect (hide) themselves from both aquatic and land predators.

Survival and shelter are only half the reasons for frogs choosing certain plants. The other half is defined by the process of procreation.

The Embrace of Life – Amplexus

A frog has never been one to follow conventions. It breathes with its moist skin, lives in water and on land, and even under the land while hibernating in winter. However, the way it mates is one of the most unique things about the species. Male and female frogs have evolved specifically for their unique mating style. It is the male’s duty to approach the female. So it sings during the mating season to mark an impression. The female, whose duty is to select a mate from the singing frogs in the vicinity, does not croak. Once she has found a match, she carries the male on her back as she is much larger in size to find a suitable spot (generally a crevasse between rocks or fast-flowing streams) and they embrace. During this, the female lays eggs (in clutches of hundreds to thousands) and the male releases sperm. Once they have done their job, they retreat to their habitats, but it is the aquatic plants that bear the responsibility from here on.

The released eggs flow into the water and attach themselves to the leaves of aquatic plants in clusters or strings, and then fertilisation takes place. Tadpoles that hatch can easily fall prey to larger aquatic creatures. They again rely on foliage or water plants to protect themselves and consume algae for growth. 

Frogs don’t just rely on just aquatic plants for reproduction. They also find homes in plants that can hold water in one or more parts. One such plant is the bromeliad – a plant family that frogs across various regions of the world collectively love. 

Commensalism or Mutualism?

Bromeliads make us several species spread across tropical and sub-tropical regions, and just like frogs, they are highly adaptable too. Frogs particularly love them for the home they make in their core, also called the ‘tank’ of the bromeliad. These tanks collect water from the rains and attract other smaller creatures too – making a micro-ecosystem in themselves. Frogs typically take shelter in these tanks which also become a place for them to mate and rear the tadpoles. 

Naturally, when selecting a home, any being is bound to get picky. But the parameters frogs use to choose the tanks are complex and haven’t been able to pin-down by scientists. Frogs rely on instincts, preference and convenience to honour a bromeliad with its presence. They select a tank which is neither too small nor too big, with just enough water for their needs. Leaf litter or excessive debris also repels frogs and they thrive in clean water. The selection criteria also differ from place to place, ecosystem to ecosystem.

It is widely accepted that in this close relationship between bromeliads and frogs, frogs benefit and bromeliads are unaffected. But in a study by Senior Mackenzie Goltz, it is deduced that the relationship is mutually beneficial. Frogs help bromeliads grow faster by providing them with nitrogen. Another instance of mutualism between frogs and plants can be seen with algae. With the frog’s skin being moist all the time, algae find a natural ground there. In return, they help frogs camouflage, keeping them safe when predators lurk around. 

Scientists worldwide are still doing extensive research on plant-frog relationships. Such nuances tell us about the complexity that exists between interdependent species and the beautiful, unfathomable web of life we live in!

How Can You Invite Frogs to Your Ecosystem?

If you love nature and enjoy the company of all its inhabitants, attracting frogs to your gardens, open spaces and farms can benefit your ecosystem. Firstly, if a frog comes into your world, it is a sign of a healthy environment. Secondly, they are natural pest controllers and keep the insect population in check, especially flies and mosquitoes.

To make your green spaces frog-friendly, make sure you have a water body as the entire lifecycle of a frog goes in and around water. Being amphibians, they like to have the choice of going in and out of water with ease. Hence frogs prefer water bodies that are shallow around and edges and deeper at the centre. Introduce enough aquatic plants into your water body which act as a source of water and breeding grounds for frogs. Use plants that provide enough shade and sunlight along with some logs and rocks for additional shelter. Keeping your environment clean and free of litter is also important as frogs like to live in clean areas and are sensitive to chemicals/ harsh fertilizers.

Frogs are one of nature’s highly adaptable creatures. They can live in human-dominant habitats as well as lush forests full of predators. They evolve with changing climates and have diverse survival methods – from camouflaging, aposematic colouration (colours that caution predators), burrowing and more. Some frogs that have evolved in specific ecosystems turn endemic to the regions and amplify their biodiversity multifold. Excellent examples of such regions are the Western Ghats in India, which are a Biodiversity Hotspot. About 90% of over 250 amphibians found in the Western Ghats are endemic to the region including several species of strikingly beautiful frogs.

Despite their resilient nature, frog populations over the last few decades have been in decline and one of the main reasons for that is human activities and modern developments. The declining number of frogs is not just an indicator of the threats to that particular species, but also threats to all those species that are connected to its ecosystem. The survival of one is dependent on the survival of all and vice versa. 

In chaos there is order. We don’t know what the order is, but the so-called ‘chaos’ knows. A forest knows how roots, leaves, ants or elephants behave. A person knows the exact location of the things in their room (and where to place something new). A city knows how its dwellers live. And a community knows what makes its members move.

The knowing is intrinsic and stems from an order – that which guides all the elements of the ecosystem to take (or not take) action in particular situations. This order that administers the smooth running of the system is formed by its own members to facilitate growth and well-being. While the order of nature is understood by its beings without a word, human-led ecosystems often have the order defined in writing, as that is the nature of being human. This is translated in the form of by-laws.

What, Where, Who, Why & How of By-laws

What are By-laws?

By-laws are a set of rules/regulations formulated by a group of people to manage themselves in a way that works in favour of the group’s well-being. Usually, by-laws are overlooked by a higher (or neutral) authority to ensure fairness and eliminate bias. They are different from the more general ‘laws’ in that the rules are restricted to members of the group and/or geographical confines. While laws are formulated by social institutions and must be followed by all for moral well-being, by-laws primarily guide the operation and maintenance of a system among other things.

Some examples of by-laws are – cities’ building regulations, health and safety codes, by-laws of cooperative societies, codes of conduct and regulations in private/public organisations, by-laws of individual gram panchayats, regulations for energy consumption, etc.

Where are By-laws Applicable?

By-laws are applicable to group organisations of all various scales – business corporations, municipalities, neighbourhood associations, societies, communities, collectives and similar groups of people who have come together for a common purpose and intend to work together to achieve it. 

Who Makes the By-laws?

They are made by the members of the group and all involved parties, for the group, and are finalised upon a series of reviews and revisions by members and/or authorities who overlook the regulation.

How are By-laws Formulated?

Members can refer to the existing by-laws of states, regions, societies and similar organisations for preparing a draft. They are then confirmed upon further inputs and reviews from everyone involved. In addition, the group can consult credible personnel to streamline their by-laws.

Why are By-laws Important?

History is proof that without a certain degree of law and order, societies can crumble. Similarly, without rules, regulations, order and structure, organisations may not achieve what they set out to do. Hence by-laws are important to

• Help us carry out our pursuits in an orderly manner
• Get all members on the same page
• Safeguard the interests and aspirations of the community
• Ensure all activities align with the community’s goals
• Maintain impartiality and fairness in the system
• Manage disputes
• Make collective decisions

What is the Basis for Defining the By-laws of a Community?

While some regulations like codes of conduct and logical order of events are universally applicable across different groups, the majority of them differ from community to community. By-laws are defined by the characteristics of the community such as its purpose, vision socio-economic and geographical context, activities in plan, the culture of the group and collective identity.

What Components Make Up the By-laws?

Depending on the defining characteristics of the group, the contents of the by-laws are pinned down, such as 

• Qualification of membership
• Extent of the community and its landscape 
• Core roles and responsibilities of all the parties involved
• Design procedures
• Timelines of activities as per a defined masterplan
• Financial management methods
• Process of dispute resolution

The one-size-fits-all approach is can be counter-productive, unfair and stressful for the group. Each community is unique and so are its by-laws. At Beforest, each forest-friendly Collective is made of unique individuals from different walks of life who have come together to practice and propagate their love for nature. We enable the formation of the by-laws of each Collective and ensure the smooth functioning of activities at each, building ecosystems that continue to support the Collective’s aspirations.

Green Peppercorn Vines growing at the Poomaale Estate, Coorg.

Living in India, most of our meals are incomplete without a generous pepper seasoning. Be it the good old comfort soup or a multi-course gourmet meal, black pepper is a not-to-miss ingredient! But this common spice of today was once as valuable (if not more) as gold! The character it brought to the experience of food, wooed the entire world and made the sails of several nations turn towards Southeast Asia – specifically peninsular India.

The Influential Season(ing)

‘Influencers and trends’ are not modern concepts. They have always been in place and have proved to overturn dynasties and shape economies. Our little influencer – black pepper – has gone as far as to direct the course of history itself.

Records of black pepper being used in Indian cooking date back to around 2000 BC. What was a common, native ingredient for India, became a mysterious ingredient for the rest of the world. Soon enough, the trade of this secret ingredient spread across Southeast Asia. It was even used as currency in some locales. Its skyrocketing market value made it a commodity of the affluent and gave it the name ‘Black Gold’.

It was the Romans who introduced this eastern spice to the western shores. Fascinated by the exotic seasoning, they exported black gold from India to their land, making it an exclusive, luxury addition to dining tables. Post the Roman fall, Arabs took over the trade and by the 16th century, black pepper became a precious culinary resource for the whole world. However, as trade routes by sea multiplied, the supply chain widened, the prices fell and black pepper soon became a humble companion of salt on the common man’s table, ending the season of influence.

The historic political power of this black gold deeply impacted the series of events in India, from ancient trade to colonisation. But what made this spice so special? Was it worth fighting wars over and invading foreign territories? Let’s dive a little deeper!

Black Pepper has Prehistoric Connections

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is deemed to originate in the Western Ghats in India, which are also a Biodiversity Hotspot. Although there are 1500 species of black pepper globally, the concentration of relatives is high in this region and we continue to discover new pepper species too! However, a recent study by scientists has revealed that the unique, loved, wild black pepper of the Western Ghats didn’t ‘originate’ in this region – it was ‘formed’ over a series of prehistoric events and epochs.

Peninsular India was once a part of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwanaland. Millions of years ago, Piper Nigrum arrived in peninsular India from Southeast Asia (study dates the Miocene Age: 23 million to 5 million years ago). Over time, with the continental drift, the lineage of the species split and each went their way. However, the Western Ghats saw a particularly distinctive development. About 10 million years ago, the monsoons intensified in the region and became more definite. As a result of climate change, ecosystems evolved to adapt and the endemic (found only in one region) black pepper of Western Ghats as we know it today was formed.

Sustaining the Legacy of Black Gold

The rich biodiversity of Western Ghats continues to fascinate scientists worldwide because of its evolutionary links and high concentrations of endemic species. The wild black pepper that grows here in various forms (tree-lets, shrubs, vines and more), has better essential oil yield and a larger percentage of piperine (the element that gives pepper its pungent taste). 

In recent years, the Western Ghats have been subject to intense anthropogenic activities resulting in habitat changes and the extinction of many wild populations. The reckless harvesting of wild black pepper for profits seems to be following a similar fashion, projecting the decline of the species. But, safeguarding it is important, not just to conserve the biodiversity of the region but also to propagate the genes of the species. Wild species have the ability to resist pests, survive droughts and adapt to climate change. Should another world-altering climate change phenomenon occur, our beloved everyday spice will continue to survive and evolve. It becomes our responsibility to ensure they thrive, for these natural treasures are worth a lot more than gold!